Notes

1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employed Persons by Occupation, Sex and Age,” 2003-2004, Table 9, Page 207, www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat9.pdf (accessed January 2006).

2. New America Foundation, “New America Foundation Proposes Bold Workplace Flexibility Policy for All Working Parents and Releases Data Showing Families Running Harder to Stay in Place,” news release, June 23, 2005, www.newamerica.net/Download_Docs/pdfs/Doc_File_2438_1.pdf.

3. American women now make up 47 percent of the entire paid labor force. Women aged twenty-five to thirty-four have seen a dramatic rise in labor. force participation, from 63 percent in 1975 to a much higher 81 percent in 1999. A full 72 percent of American mothers work outside of the home. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employed Persons by Occupation, Sex and Age”; Deirdre Gaquin, Special Tabulations of the March 1975 and March 2000 Current Population Surveys (Women’s Research and Education Institute, 2001), in Cynthia B. Costello et al., The American Woman 2003–2004: Daughters of a Revolution—Young Women Today (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 62; and Barbara Downs, Fertility of American Women: June 2002, Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, D.C., 2003, www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-548.pdf.

4. Downs, Fertility of American Women: June 2002.

5. In 1980, mothers earned 56 percent of men’s salaries, while non-mothers earned 66 percent (a 10 percent mommy wage gap). But by 1991, nonmothers’ earnings rocketed to 90.1 percent, while mothers earned only 72.6 percent (an increased 17.5 percent mommy wage gap). SOURCE: Jane Waldfogel, “Understanding the ‘Family Gap’ in Pay for Women with Children,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 12, no. 1 (1998): 137–156.

6. Jane Waldfogel, “Understanding the ‘Family Gap’ in Pay for Women with Children,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 12, no. 1 (1998), 137–156.

7. U.S. Census Bureau, “People: Income and Employment,” 2005, http://factfinder.census.gov/jsp/saff/SAFFInfo.jsp?_pageId=tp6_income_employment.

8. Waldfogel, “Understanding the ‘Family Gap.’ ”

9. Children’s Defense Fund calculations, based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey Annual Demographic Supplement,Detailed Income Tables, “Table FINC-03. Presence of Related Children Under 18 Years Old—All Families, by Total Money Income in 2001, Type of Family Work Experience in 2001, Race and Hispanic Origin of Reference Person,” ferret.bls.census.gov/macro/032002/faminc/new03_000.htm.

10. USDA Food and Nutrition Service, “Fact Sheet on Resources, Income, and Benefits,” October 2005, www.fns.usda.gov/fsp/applicant_recipients/fs_Res_Ben_Elig.htm.

11. Shelley Correll, “Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?” (paper presented at the American Sociological Association’s 100th annual meeting in Philadelphia, PA, August 15, 2005); Daniel Aloi, “Mothers Face Disadvantages in Getting Hired, Cornell Study Says,” Cornell University News Service, August 4, 2005, www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Aug05/soc.mothers.dea.html.

12. Jyoti Thottam, “Reworking Work,” Time, July 25, 2005, www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1083900,00.html; James T. Bond et al., 2005 National Study of Employers: Highlights of Findings (Families and Work Institute, 2005), familiesandwork.org/summary/2005nsesummary.pdf; and Families and Work Institute, “2005 National Study of Employers Reveals Changes in Work Life Assistance Offered to America’s Employees,” news release, October 13, 2005, familiesandwork.org/press/2005nserelease.html#nse.

13. Bond et al., 2005 National Study; and Families and Work Institute, “2005 National Study of Employers Reveals Changes.”

14. U.S. Census Bureau, “Table H1: Percent Childless and Births per 1,000 Women in the Last Year: Selected Years, 1976 to Present,” October 23, 2003, www.census.gov/population/socdemo/fertility/tabH1.pdf.

15. xvi. Gaquin, Special Tabulations. in Costello et al., The American Woman 2003–2004, 62.

16. Waldfogel, “Understanding the ‘Family Gap.’ ”

17. U.S. Census Bureau, “People: Income and Employment.”

18. Sylvia Ann Hewlett and Carolyn Buck Luce, “Off Ramps and On-Ramps: Keeping Talented Women on the Road to Success,” Harvard Business Review, March 2005.